This paper argues that within consciousness studies, dualist vs. reductionist debates typically characterise experience in ways which do not correspond to ordinary experience, and that to understand consciousness one must start with an accurate description of its phenomenology. Only then can one develop an understanding of how experiences viewed from a first-person perspective relate to events in the brain viewed from a third-person perspective. The paper then lists some common arguments for conscious experiences (accurately described) being nothing more than brain (...) states along with their fallacies. It concludes that there are fundamental problems with ontological reductionism of conscious experiences to brain states that cannot be resolved. (shrink)

This is a fine book. In what has become a crowded field, it stands out as direct, deep, and daring. It should place Max Velmans amongst the stars in the field like Chalmers, Dennett, Searle, and Churchland who are most commonly referenced in consciousness studies books and articles. It is direct in that the de rigueur history and review of the body-mind problem is illuminating and concise. It is deep in that Velmans deconstructs the usual idea of an (...) objective world as distinct from our experienced world. It is daring in that in his last chapter he comes out on the side of consciousness co-evolving with the universe rather than arising at some point within it (though he insists that such speculation is beyond the more empirical intent of his earlier chapters). (shrink)

Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva E-mails: [email protected] e [email protected] WhatsApp: (82)9.8143-8399 -/- Max Weber: Ação Social e Tipos Ideais Nascido na Alemanha, em 1864. Os trabalhos de Weber estão condensados entre as duas primeiras décadas do século XX e estipulam uma nova estruturação para as Ciências Sociais. Weber, assim como outros cientistas sociais, dedicou-se a metodizar a Sociologia, não obstante, sua perspectiva sociológica diverge do pensamento de Durkheim, particularmente no que tange à transcendência do sujeito e de sua ação social. (...) Divergente de Émile Durkheim, o autor em questão, não considerava o corpo social como algo externo e eminente aos sujeitos. Para Weber, o corpo social careceria ser ponderado sobre o alicerce do conjunto das ações individuais. Todavia, o que seria o supracitado? Para o autor, qualquer ação individual é norteada por outras ações, isto é, quando procedemos, levamos em consideração e nos norteamos pela ação de outrem. Alicerçados na expectação de como nossa ação será vista, procedemos de uma ou outra maneira, sempre com base no olhar de outrem. Logo, nossa ação individual é acatada por Weber como sendo social, uma vez que ela está inserida em um contexto histórico e social que caracteriza todas as ações individuais. Com isso, os acontecimentos sociais são resultados diretos de ações individuais, o que nos dá ideia de que não há objeção entre o sujeito e o corpo social, visto que, para o autor, somente é possível captar o corpo social no momento em que a ação individual a divulga. Logo, o sujeito não é visto como um produto de um todo coercitivo. O sujeito é, antagonicamente, consciente pelos seus atos. O corpo social não tem uma essência própria, mas é reproduzido pelos sujeitos que o conformam, que mediante suas ações lhe conferem essa essência que o falta. Por conseguinte, os estudos de Weber tem como fundamental âmago a indicação de que o entendimento de acontecimentos sociais organizacionais (como o capitalismo, as formas de poder, as formas de dominação, os Estados, os regimes políticos e as religiões) situa-se na observação e no entendimento das ações individuais ou de um agrupamento dessas ações. Mediante tais análises supracitadas, Weber explana: [a sociologia é a] ciência que tem como meta a compreensão interpretativa da ação social de maneira a obter uma explicação de suas causas, de seu curso e de seus efeitos. Por “ação” se designará toda a conduta humana, cujos sujeitos vinculem a esta ação um sentido subjetivo. Tal comportamento pode ser mental ou exterior; poderá consistir de ação ou de omissão no agir. O termo “ação social” será reservado à ação cuja intenção fomentada pelos indivíduos envolvidos se refere à conduta de outros, orientando-se de acordo com ela. Para o autor, o sujeito é singular, e que essa singularidade é um alusivo cêntrico, tanto para si próprio quanto para o corpo social. Logo, significa dizer que a análise weberiana parte do sujeito e de sua ação individual para elucidar os acontecimentos ou fenômenos sociais que se decorrera. Como exemplo pragmático do texto supra, não seria exequível elucidar o ascendente número de suicídios provenientes da crise econômica em certo país. Contrariamente, seria imprescindível partir da observação e entendimento empírico das ações solitárias que serviram como motivação para essa ascensão e suicídios. Logo, somos capazes de compreender que a ação social é o agente de investigação cêntrica da sociologia de Max Weber. Todavia, o que é uma ação social? Para o autor em questão, a ação social nada mais é do que quaisquer ação de um sujeito que é norteada pela a ação de outrem. Como exemplo pragmático do antes citado, temos as eleições. O sujeito vota, tendo como norte os comentários, pelas intenções, pelas pesquisas realizadas por instituições como Ibope, Datafolha, etc. e até mesmo pelo votos de outros votantes. Isto é, a ação de votar em urna eletrônica é individual, mas só se torna cognoscível sociologicamente ao passo em que a escolha de estipulado candidato tem como norte o conjunto dos demais votantes. A seguir, imagens que representam uma eleitora exercendo seu papel democrático na urna eletrônica no Rio de Janeiro, outubro de 2010 e, logo depois uma charge de 2010. As observações e as compreensões de Weber ante os corpos sociais e de seus acontecimentos peculiares tem como centralidade o referencial da ação do agente individual. Com isso, a protestação histórica de determinados acontecimentos devem ser entendidos mediante o agrupamento das ações individuais. Tendo como estopim as ações individuais, o autor objetiva entender problemas sociais genéricos. Destarte, para analisar problemas que afetam e caracterizam o corpo social como um todo, é preciso partir da investigação de ações individuais intrínsecas. Para Weber, o conhecimento sociológico, só pode ter finalidade se tiver como alicerce o estudo dessas ações individuais supracitadas. Não obstante, o que deve ser posto em análise? Segundo Weber, a realidade é desmesurável e, com isso, deverá ser fragmentada para que se possa compreendê-la. O instrumento de investigação é, assim, criado pelo sociólogo. O especialista social faz uma escolha dos fatos que vai investigar: sua escolha é intrínseca. É o sociólogo que decide o que estudar e analisar alicerçado em julgamentos que se fundamentam de acordo com seus valores pessoais. Mediante essa escolha do que analisar, que é peculiarmente intrínseca, Max Weber constrói um método de investigação para alcançar a imparcialidade científica. Os resultados são considerados objetivos, ao passo em que os procedimentos de investigação da ação social são aplicados na prática efetiva. Quanto mais longe da finalidade da investigação o sociólogo se coloca, mais concretos e objetivos serão os resultados de sua análise. As metodologias de investigação, que asseguram a imparcialidade dos resultados, estão diretamente relacionadas à construção de tipos ideais ou tipos puros. O alcunhado tipo ideal é um “instrumento” que o analista e pesquisador utiliza para se aproximar da realidade subjetiva. Cotejando com a Física, digamos que o tipo ideal é uma régua que serve para medição de determinado elemento. Nada mais é do que um artífice para medir a realidade, bem como para tentar compreender o conteúdo dessa realidade em questão. Todavia, como a realidade é plural e múltipla e impossível de ser elucidada em toda sua totalidade, o autor elabora tipos ideais para se apropinquar o máximo possível da realidade pragmática e subjetiva em análise. Tais tipos ideais são obrados mediante as regularidades sociais que ele observou. Frisando que a edificação de um tipo ideal, apesar de se espelhar na realidade pragmática, nada mais é do que um artífice teórico do pesquisador. Algo como escolher certas características regulares de determinada sociedade e construir um tipo ideal de pai de família . Quando o pesquisador for investigar um corpo social especifico, esse tipo ideal antes citado, ainda que não insira-se exatamente na realidade, servirá de alicerce para compreender como, citando caso análogo, alguns pais estipulam relações com suas famílias em certas comunidades. Como conclusão, Weber edificou quatro tipos ideais de ação social, são elas: 1. A ação social com relação a fins; 2. A ação social com base na relação de valores; 3. A ação tradicional e, por fim, 4. A ação afetiva. Por se tratar de tipos ideais, essas ações não são formalmente reconhecíveis na realidade. Todavia, alicerçados pela construção teórica de weber, podemos analisar a realidade e a verificar algumas ações individuais definidas por um único ou mais tipos ideais de ação social. A essência aqui é enxergar e entender que esse artífice favorece o entendimento do corpo social ao passo em que apropinqua o pesquisador da realidade estudada. -/- AVALIAÇÃO DE FIXAÇÃO DO ASSUNTO: MAX WEBER: AÇÃO SOCIAL E TIPOS IDEAIS PROF. Lic. EMANUEL ISAQUE CORDEIRO DA SILVA SOCIOLOGIA GERAL II – 24 de Maio de 2019 TURMA: 2° __ -/- Estudante: __________________________________________________________ N°: ___ -/- 1 Amparados pelas aulas ministradas, aclare a suma importância dos estudos de Weber para a estruturação do novo estágio das Ciências Sociais do século XX. 2 A sociologia de Weber diverge da de Durkheim. Aponte as principais divergências entre o pensamento dos autores sobre o indivíduo e sobre a sociedade. 3 Para Weber, quaisquer ação individual é orientada por ações de outros sujeitos. Aclare a ideia, antes citada, alicerçados por fundamentos de sua vida pragmática em sodalício. 4 Segundo Weber, só é possível compreender a sociedade mediante a manifestação da ação individual do sujeito. Elucide a ideia defendida pelo estudioso e, embasados pelas aulas em sala de aula, cite exemplos de manifestações contemporâneas no nosso país que servem de alicerce para entender a realidade social do Brasil. 5 Elucide a teoria de que a compreensão dos fenômenos sociais estruturais estão alicerçados na análise e entendimento das ações individuais ou de um conjunto dessas ações. 6 Debruçados a citação do livro Conceitos básicos de Sociologia, elucide por quê a meta da Sociologia, como ciência, é a compreensão interpretativa das ações dos indivíduos. 7 Amparados pela citação do livro de Weber, supracitada no texto, defina o que seria “ação” e “ação social” para o autor, posteriormente, use tais alcunhas weberianas e dê uma nova definição para os termos, embasados pela sua observação quanto a sociedade contemporânea. 8 Ao votar, o eleitor pratica uma ação individual que é orientada pela ação dos outros indivíduos. Explique por quê. 9 Para Weber, a realidade é infinita e deve ser recortada para ser compreendida. Aclare a ideia. 10 Elucide por quê a escolha do pesquisador sobre o que vai se analisar deverá ser subjetiva. 11 Elucide o que seria um tipo ideal weberiano. 12 Elucide por quê é fundamental o conceito de tipo ideal para que o pesquisador se apropinquar da realidade subjetiva. 13 O tipo ideal, comparando com a Física, é uma régua que serve para medir um elemento. Aclare a ideia weberiana. 14 Defina os tipos ideias de ação social construídos por Weber e, posteriormente, cite exemplos de ambos os tipos na sociedade atual em que vivemos. a) Ação Tradicional; b) Ação Afetiva; c) Ação Racional orientada a valores, e d) Ação Racional orientada a fins. 15 Como conclusão, debruçados sobre o texto introdutório, leio atentamente após todas as questões resolvidas, para um melhor entendimento profundo, e disserte sobre todas as ideias explanadas, expondo seu ponto de vista sobre o tema, isto é, se concorda ou não, sempre usando uma fundamentação que alicerce seu ponto de vista. (Mínimo – 35 linhas/Máximo – 65 linhas). -/- De coração, boa sorte! (shrink)

Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva E-mails: [email protected] / [email protected] WhatsApp: (82)9.8143-8399 O CAPITALISMO E A FORMAÇÃO DO PENSAMENTO CLÁSSICO A partir do século XVI, inúmeras metamorfoses sociais divergentes entre si vêm moldando e caracterizando o sistema sociopolítico-econômico que hoje denominamos de capitalismo. A vida pragmática social ganhou novos moldes e formatos específicos, isto é, formas de produção e produtividade, de ignição, de cultura e de dispêndio foram moldados e constituídas ao longo dos últimos cinco séculos da humanidade, outorgando uma feição (...) própria e particular à sociedade capitalista, sendo ela divergente de todas que a precederam. Não obstante, o sistema capitalista teve seus primórdios nas sociedades feudais, estruturadas em torno do labor servil e da produção agrícola fixadas nos feudos. Ao longo do passar dos anos, novas ânsias ligadas ao comércio e ao mercado estabeleceram-se como âmago central da novíssima sociedade capitalista que se estruturalizava. As urbes feudais cambiaram a vida no campo, as manufaturas e, posteriormente, as indústrias comutaram os nexos de produção da antiga sociedade, e o consumo ganhou simetrias cada vez maiores ante a inópia de desenvolvimento da produção de produtos e mercadorias. A vida em sodalício desenvolveu-se alicerçada em um encadeamento de acontecimentos históricos. A sociedade tal qual vivemos na atualidade é proveniente de diversas mutações históricas engendradas nos séculos que se passaram. A acumulação de sapiências sociais designou o conjunto de condutas sociais, inópias, padrões culturais e de comportamento, organizações simétricas políticas e do conhecimento científico que representamos atualmente. A produção e a imitação social é proveniente de uma síntese de eventos históricos. A produção da Sociologia resulta-se do dinamismo de consolidação da sociedade capitalista. Logo, essa gleba de estudo, só se pôde manifestar-se mediante a existência de unidades sociais necessárias para o seu surgimento e desenvolvimento. Como todo e qualquer fato histórico, a gênese da Sociologia tem conexão direta com as inópias sociais que manifestaram-se no momento da sua iniciação. Logo, como conclusão, a gênese da Sociologia está concernentemente ligada à própria configuração de como o capitalismo se desenvolveu ao passo dos séculos XIX e XX. A indústria obteve grande crescimento, o que proporcionou a transformação dos modos de vida em sodalício. No continente europeu, ao passo do século XVIII, a pragmática da sociedade era proferida pela indústria de tecidos, e um dos desígnios da ciência era a fomentação da produção de mercadorias, com o intuito de torná-las mais categóricas, rápidas e baratas. A partir da introdução das máquinas, a produtividade elencou impulsivamente, e o proletário foi impulsionado a trabalhar no mesmo ritmo que as máquinas. À analogia da cisão do trabalho na indústria, proporcionou a divisão do conhecimento científico. Uma vez que, novas práticas científicas e novas figurações de conhecimento da sociedade seguiram o modelo do desenvolvimento industrial. Logo, as metamorfoses produtivas influenciaram-se e foram impulsionadas mediante a gênese da Sociologia e demais Ciências Sociais, como a Antropologia, a Economia e a Ciência Política. Mediante os fatos que ocorrera, raiaram-se os três alicerces do pensamento clássico da Sociologia: Émile Durkheim (1858-1917), Max Weber (1864-1920) e Karl Marx (1818-1883). Ao bel país alemão, ao passo do século XIX, Karl Marx aclarava a ideia de que as condições materiais de existência eram deliberadas na vida pragmática em sodalício. Segundo Marx, a humanidade é circunspecta por realizar sua própria história de vida. Com isso, não haveria espaço para um destino predeterminado em quaisquer esfera. O embate entre facções sociais com interesses divergentes entre si concebe a base da mudança e metamorfoses sociais. Logo, as elucidações alicerçadas na fé devem dar lugar à ideologias de que a vida pragmática sodalícia é engendrada pelo embate entre as fracções com interesses distintos. Essas faculdades sociais heterogêneas são as que determinam as metamorfoses históricas e organizam o modo de vida de cada sociedade. Em contrapartida, o sociólogo francês Émile Durkheim, no final do século XIX e início do século XX, apropinquou a Sociologia da metodologia das Ciências Naturais. Para Durkheim, o corpo social era como uma espécime viva, e cada compartimento dessa espécime é conectada com a totalidade em geral (o organismo social) ao passo em que dependia dele. A assimilação social foi um tema de grande discussão nas obras do autor, uma vez que ele considerava que o corpo social exercia uma faculdade (uma coerção) sobre os indivíduos, modelando-os de acordo com sua similitude. Na introdução do século XX, Max Weber arrevesou a base geral de Durkheim. Em lugar de cogitar o corpo social espelhada nos indivíduos, Weber tencionava que as ações dos indivíduos eram estruturadas e orientadas por outras ações, ou seja, um fato social tinha como espelho um conjunto de demais outros fatos. Logo, a ação/fato social tal qual era influenciada por outras ações solitárias, bem como as influenciava. O autor constituiu, assim, a ação social como desígnio principal de sua perspectiva sociológica. Breve conclusões Como pôde-se analisar, a gênese da Sociologia está diretamente ligada com a história do capitalismo, particularmente ligada à ascensão industrial e política do século XIX. Logo, podemos dizer que a Sociologia raiou-se em razão dessa ascensão e pela inevitabilidade de elucidação das diversas metamorfoses sociais ocorridas no século XIX. Marx cooperou para a investigação do capitalismo na medida em que também designou uma teoria em que o corpo social passou a ser compreendida como decorrência de lutas sociais divergentes. Já o francês Durkheim, buscou elucidar o desarranjo provocado pelas metamorfoses sociais, procurando a unidade em um mundo progressivamente aquinhoado pelo fracionamento do trabalho. Seus estudos buscaram a ordenação de um corpo social caótico, sempre com a finalidade de encontrar um estado de estabilidade social. Por fim, Weber entendeu que a Sociologia careceria partir do ponto de vista da ação do indivíduo, sem que ocorresse uma divergência entre o indivíduo e o corpo social. Para o sociólogo e economista, as normas sociais são manifestadas a partir do momento em que os indivíduos as manifesta. Logo, a ação peculiar, portanto, é sempre condicionada pela ação de outrem. EXERCÍCIO DE FIXAÇÃO DO ASSUNTO: CAPITALISMO E FORMAÇÃO DO PENSAMENTO CLÁSSICO PROF. Lic. EMANUEL ISAQUE CORDEIRO DA SILVA SOCIOLOGIA GERAL II – 10 de Maio de 2019 TURMA 2° __ -/- Estudante:__________________________________________________________ N°:____ -/- 1. Debruçados ante o texto e alicerçados pelas aulas em sala de aula, descreva algumas transformações que fizeram com que o sistema feudal entrasse em declínio e, como consequência, ascendeu o sistema capitalista, sua escrita deve conter uma linha de pensamento embasada sobre o contexto histórico-social do século XVI. 2. Elucide o êxodo do sistema feudal para o sistema capitalista citando vantagens e desvantagens para o corpo social, bem como para as diversas esferas da economia. 3. Aclare a ideia da necessidade de desenvolvimento dos produtos e mercadorias posterior à ascensão do consumo, e explane se tal ideia foi benéfica para o sistema em desenvolvimento e para o corpo social. 4. Atente à alínea que se segue: “A produção e a imitação social é proveniente de uma síntese de eventos históricos”. Amparados pelo texto acerca do assunto em sua totalidade, bem como das aulas ministradas, explane por que tais eventos históricos decorridos nos cinco últimos séculos, foram primordiais para a moldura da produção da sociedade capitalista e do desenvolvimento do comércio e melhoramento dos sistemas políticos universais. 5. Aclare a ideia de que o surgimento da Sociologia está diretamente conectada com o surgimento e desenvolvimento do sistema capitalista e dos fatos históricos que se passavam. 6. Assim como a Sociologia nasceu a partir da necessidade da elucidação da sociedade capitalista, explane por que foi de suma importância entender o capitalismo e a sociedade econômica e política para que se pudesse entender os acontecimentos que se decorriam. 7. Explique como a indústria moldou a nova vida pragmática dos indivíduos no século XVIII. 8. Leitura de imagem e interpretação de fragmentos. Atente a imagem que se segue, bem como ao fragmento do livro The Condition of the Working Classes in England in 1844, de Friedrich Engels: -/- “Em todas as cidades onde há manufaturas vemos multidões de pessoas, especialmente mulheres e crianças, caminhando descalças [...]”. -/- A partir da imagem e do fragmento de Engels, elucide o papel das mulheres e das crianças no desenvolvimento das indústrias e, também, as condições de vida de trabalho dos mesmos. 9. Aclare a ideia de que a ciência teria como objetivo peculiar transformar os produtos fabricados cada vez mais categóricos, rápidos e baratos. 10. Opine sobre a imposição dos burgueses sobre o proletariado, para que esse último trabalhasse no mesmo ritmo que as máquinas. (Lembre do filme de Charles Chaplin, Tempos Modernos). 11. Elucide o impulsionamento das metamorfoses sociais mediante a Sociologia e demais Ciências Sociais. 12. Amparados pelo texto introdutório acerca dos pensamentos clássicos da Sociologia, bem como pelas aulas ministradas em sala de aula, elucide a contribuição dos pensamentos de Marx, Durkheim e Weber para o progresso e entendimento do corpo social em toda sua totalidade. Logo, explane respectivamente as ideias abaixo, traçando uma linha de pensamento fundamentada nas teorias dos respectivos autores e amparadas por fatos concretos decorrentes na sociedade em que viviam. -/- a) Karl Marx: -/- b) Émile Durkheim: -/- c) Max Weber: -/- 13. Como conclusão, debruçados sobre o texto introdutório, leio atentamente após todas as questões resolvidas, para um melhor entendimento profundo, e disserte sobre todas as ideias explanadas, expondo seu ponto de vista sobre o tema, isto é, se concorda ou não, sempre usando uma fundamentação que alicerce seu ponto de vista. (Mínimo – 25 linhas/Máximo – 55 linhas). -/- De coração, boa sorte! (shrink)

When this article was first planned, writing was going to be exclusively about two things - the origin of life and human evolution. But it turned out to be out of the question for the author to restrict himself to these biological and anthropological topics. A proper understanding of them required answering questions like “What is the nature of the universe – the home of life – and how did it originate?”, “How can time travel be removed from fantasy and (...) science fiction, to be made scientific and practical?”, and “How can the proposed young age of genus Homo be made to actually be reasonable – when simply stating it would be solid ground for instant rejection and dismissal?” The result is that the article also talks about subjects like Artificial Intelligence, General Relativity, and cosmology. -/- From where did life originate? God? Evolution? Panspermia? If the tendency of humans and scientists to regard undiscovered science as pseudoscience can be overcome, Einstein gave another alternative to consider when he introduced General Relativity. Time isn’t linear – progressing in a straight line from past to present to future. That assumption ignores Relativity which states that space AND TIME are curved. Where did life and the genetic code come from? Can the answer build AI? -/- The first question can be answered by the section of this article titled SETI, Evolution, and Time which says life (possibly multicellular and intelligent) and the genetic code came from humans acquiring knowledge of these things over the centuries, then applying that knowledge – via terraforming, accumulation of raw materials like amino acids and nucleic acids, genetic engineering - to a time in the past when life didn’t exist. From that origin, life evolved through innumerable mutations and adaptations, with humans once again acquiring knowledge of it in cyclic (nonlinear) time. -/- The second question is answered by saying artificial intelligence (AI) as the product of life is only half of the equation. The other half refers to Relativity’s curved space-time and violation of the notion that time always travels from past to future. We have always lived in an artificially intelligent, non-probabilistic universe where everything in time and space is connected into one thing by quantum entanglement – making the brain and genes products of binary-digit activity or artificial intelligence (life is not merely dependent on biology’s “lock and key” mechanisms but also possesses AI). -/- The earliest documented representative of the genus Homo is Homo habilis, which evolved around 2.8 million years ago. Scientists used to believe there was a straight line from H. habilis to us, Homo sapiens. This article will use the “advanced” waves loved by Physics Nobel laureate Richard Feynman, view the history of science through the lens of Conic Sections applied to Relativity’s curved space-time, and incorporate the necessity of so-called imaginary time * – popularized by Prof. Stephen Hawking. While the evolutionary proposals are more in agreement with this early straight line than with modern theories, Albert Einstein’s General Relativity is used to transform the straight line into a curved line, ultimately concluding that Homo habilis (H. habilis) originated only (and unbelievably, as far as today’s science and technology is concerned) ~250,000 years ago. Other branches and dead ends of Homo – e.g. Neanderthals – are the result of mutations and adaptations, with the resultant modifications to anatomy and physiology. The surprisingly young age of H. habilis allows nearly 200,000 years for habilis, or one of its descendants, to reach Australia … if this country’s indigenous Aboriginal population did, as claimed, reach this “island continent” 60,000 years ago. -/- * The ultraviolet catastrophe, also called the Rayleigh–Jeans catastrophe, is a failure of classical physics to predict observed phenomena: it can be shown that a blackbody - a hypothetical perfect absorber and radiator of energy - would release an infinite amount of energy, contradicting the principles of conservation of energy and indicating that a new model for the behaviour of blackbodies was needed. At the start of the 20th century, physicist Max Planck derived the correct solution by making some strange (for the time) assumptions. In particular, Planck assumed that electromagnetic radiation can only be emitted or absorbed in discrete packets, called quanta. Albert Einstein postulated that Planck's quanta were real physical particles (what we now call photons), not just a mathematical fiction. From there, Einstein developed his explanation of the photoelectric effect (when quanta or photons of light shine on certain metals, electrons are released and can form an electric current). So it appears entirely possible that another supposed mathematical trickery (imaginary time and the y-axis of Wick rotation) will find practical application in the future. -/- The article includes mathematical references to cosmology (spoiler alert – you’ll read about things like Vector-Tensor-Scalar Geometry, topology, the “eternal present”, Einstein’s Unified Field, the inverse-square law, and there being no Big Bang and no multiverse - but there will also be no equations). -/- The other subheadings in this essay are – -/- NONLINEAR TIME AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (about a 2009 electrical engineering experiment at America’s Yale University, and cosmic wormholes) -/- BITS AND TOPOLOGY (base-2 maths aka Binary digiTS, Mobius strips, and figure-8 Klein bottles) -/- WICK ROTATION, CAUSALITY, AND UNITING TIME (do past, present and future co-exist in an “eternal present”?) -/- DIGITAL BRAIN, DIGITAL UNIVERSE (if the brain and the universe are ultimately composed of binary digits, we'll someday be able to do the same things with the brain and universe that we now do with computers) -/- PROPOSAL: HUMAN AND ANIMAL INSTINCTS ARE THE RESULT OF THE UNIVERSE BEING UNIFIED BY BINARY DIGITS (AND TOPOLOGY) (If everything in the universe is ultimately composed of electronic BITS, then the universe must possess Artificial Intelligence - some prefer the term Cosmic Consciousness) -/- INFORMATION THEORY CONQUERS A RED GIANT (preserving Earth by keeping the Sun near today’s level of activity forever). 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No debemos olvidar que existe una relación dialéctica entre libertad y justicia. Cuanto mayor es la justicia, más necesario es limitar la libertad; cuanto mayor es la libertad que se disfruta, más se amenaza la justicia, porque los más fuertes, los más inteligentes, los más hábiles acaban oprimiendo a los demás. Esta antítesis de libertad y justicia debe estar siempre presente en nuestra conciencia, incluso cuando pensamos en la sociedad del futuro.

Advocates of conceptual engineering as a method of philosophy face a dilemma: either they are ignorant of how conceptual engineering can be implemented, or else it is trivial to implement but of very little value, representing no new or especially fruitful method of philosophizing. Two key distinctions frame this dilemma and explain its two horns. First, the distinction between speaker’s meaning and reference and semantic meaning and reference reveals a severe implementation problem for one construal of conceptual engineering. Second, the (...) distinction between stipulating meanings and conceptually analyzing allows us to see why, on another construal of what conceptual engineering involves, the practice is neither a new nor neglected philosophical methodology. The article also argues that semantic externalism is not the root of the implementation problem for conceptual engineering, and that the usual rationale for adopting the practice, one that ties its value to the amelioration of “conceptual defects”, is unsound. (shrink)

Non-naturalist realists are committed to the belief, famously voiced by Parfit, that if there are no non-natural facts then nothing matters. But it is morally objectionable to conditionalise all our moral commitments on the question of whether there are non-natural facts. Non-natural facts are causally inefficacious, and so make no difference to the world of our experience. And to be a realist about such facts is to hold that they are mind-independent. It is compatible with our experiences that there are (...) no non-natural facts, or that they are very different from what we think. As Nagel says, realism makes scepticism intelligible. So the non-naturalist must hold that you might be wrong that your partner matters, even if you are correct about every natural, causal fact about your history and relationship. But to hold that conditional attitude to your partner would be a moral betrayal. So believing non-naturalist realism involves doing something immoral. (shrink)

Delusional beliefs have sometimes been considered as rational inferences from abnormal experiences. We explore this idea in more detail, making the following points. Firstly, the abnormalities of cognition which initially prompt the entertaining of a delusional belief are not always conscious and since we prefer to restrict the term “experience” to consciousness we refer to “abnormal data” rather than “abnormal experience”. Secondly, we argue that in relation to many delusions (we consider eight) one can clearly identify what the abnormal cognitive (...) data are which prompted the delusion and what the neuropsychological impairment is which is responsible for the occurrence of these data; but one can equally clearly point to cases where this impairments is present but delusion is not. So the impairment is not sufficient for delusion to occur. A second cognitive impairment, one which impairs the ability to evaluate beliefs, must also be present. Thirdly (and this is the main thrust of our chapter) we consider in detail what the nature of the inference is that leads from the abnormal data to the belief. This is not deductive inference and it is not inference by enumerative induction; it is abductive inference. We offer a Bayesian account of abductive inference and apply it to the explanation of delusional belief. (shrink)

Metaphysics should follow science in postulating laws alongside properties. I defend this claim against the claim that natural properties conceived as powers make laws of nature redundant. Natural properties can be construed in a “thin” or a “thick” way. If one attributes a property in the thin sense to an object, this attribution does not conceptually determine which other properties the object possesses. The thin construal is underlying the scientific strategy for understanding nature piecemeal. Science explains phenomena by cutting reality (...) conceptually in properties attributed to space-time points, where these properties are conceived of independently of each other, to explore then, in a separate step, how the properties are related to each other; those determination relations between properties are laws. This is compatible with the thesis that laws are metaphysically necessary. According to the thick conception, a property contains all its dependency relations to other properties. The dependency relationships between properties (which appear as laws in the thin conception) are parts of the properties they relate. There are several reasons to resist the thick conception of properties. It makes simple properties “holistic”, in the sense that each property contains many other properties as parts. It cannot account for the fact that properties constrain each other’s identity; it can neither explain why natural properties are linked to a unique set of dispositions, nor why and how this set is structured nor why the truth-maker of many disposition attributions is relational although the disposition is grounded on a monadic property. (shrink)

What exactly does conceptual analysis consist in? Is it empirical or a priori? How does it support philosophical theses? and What kinds of thesis are these? There is no consensus on these questions in contemporary philosophy. This study aims to defend conceptual analysis by showing that it comprises a number of different methods and by explaining their importance in philosophy. After setting out an initial dilemma for conceptual analysis, the study outlines a minimal ecumenical account of concepts, as well as (...) an account of concept possession and concept employment. On the basis of these accounts, the study then argues that there are both empirical and a priori forms of conceptual analysis, and that each can be defended as legitimate methods. The philosophical interest of conceptual analysis, however, resides in relying on all three types of method in the service of answering philosophical concerns. This is illustrated by three sample cases. (shrink)

Using placebos in day-to-day practice is an ethical problem. This paper summarises the available epidemiological evidence to support this difficult decision. Based on these data we propose to differentiate between placebo and “knowledge framing”. While the use of placebo should be confined to experimental settings in clinical trials, knowledge framing — which is only conceptually different from placebo — is a desired, expected and necessary component of any doctor-patient encounter. Examples from daily practice demonstrate both, the need to investigate the (...) effects of knowledge framing and its impact on ethical, medical, economical and legal decisions. (shrink)

Many theorists have defended the claim that collective entities can attain genuine agential status. If collectives can be agents, this opens up a further question: can they be conscious? That is, is there something that it is like to be them? Eric Schwitzgebel argues that yes, collective entities, may well be significantly conscious. Others, including Kammerer, Tononi and Koch, and List reject the claim. List does so on the basis of Tononi’s Integrated Information Theory of consciousness. I argue here that (...) List’s rejection is too quick, and that groups can, at least in principle, display the kind of informational integration we might think is necessary for consciousness. However, group consciousness will likely differ substantially from the individual experiences that give rise to it. This requires the defender of group consciousness to face up to a similar combination problem as the panpsychist. (shrink)

In the pair of articles of which this is the second, I present a set of problems and philosophical proposals that have in recent years been associated with the term “relativism”. These problems are related to the question of how we should represent thought and speech about certain topics. The main issue is whether we should model such mental states or linguistic acts as involving representational contents that are absolutely correct or incorrect, or whether, alternatively, their correctness should be thought (...) of as varying with some (more or less surprising) factor. In the first article, “Relativism 1: Representational Content”, I discussed the general issue of relativism about representational content. I argued for the conciliatory view that both relativist and absoutist conceptions of representational content can be legitimate. In the present continuation, I look in more detail at a special case of the general issue, namely the question of whether semantic contents, i.e. the contents assigned to linguistic utterances in the semantics of natural language, should be construed in an absolutist or in a relativist way. (shrink)

These essays reveal another side of Horkheimer, focusing on his remarkable contributions to critical theory in the 1930s. Max Horkheimer is well known as the director of the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research and as a sometime collaborator with Theodor Adorno, especially on their classic Dialectic of Enlightenment. These essays reveal another side of Horkheimer, focusing on his remarkable contributions to critical theory in the 1930s. Included are Horkheimer's inaugural address as director of the Institute, in which he outlines the (...) interdisciplinary research program that would dominate the initial phase of the Frankfurt School, his first full monograph, and a number of other pieces published in the 1930s. The essays, most of which have not appeared in English before, are surprisingly relevant to current post-philosophy debates, notably "On the Problem of Truth," with its focus on pragmatism, and "The Rationalism Debate in Current Philosophy," a sustained critique of the post-Cartesian philosophy of consciousness. Horkheimer's 1933 critique of Kantian ethics, "Materialism and Morality," is of particular interest given the current reaction to the neo-Kantian aspect of Habermas's work. There are also essays relevant to the current foundations debate within Continental philosophy, and the rationality/relativism question is sustained throughout the volume. (shrink)

This essay develops the epistemic challenge to non-naturalist moral realism. While evolutionary considerations do not support the strongest claims made by ‘debunkers’, they do provide the basis for an inductive argument that our moral dispositions and starting beliefs are at best partially reliable. So, we need some method for separating truth from falsity. Many non-naturalists think that rational reflection can play this role. But rational reflection cannot be expected to bring us to truth even from reasonably accurate starting points. Reflection (...) selects views that are coherent and conflict-free, yet there is no reason to think that the non-natural moral truth must be like this. Inasmuch as we seek coherent, conflict-free, ethical viewpoints, that suggests that our goal is not non-natural truth at all. (shrink)

In the pair of articles of which this is the first, I shall present a set of problems and philosophical proposals that have in recent years been associated with the term “relativism”. All these problems and proposals concern the question of how we should represent thought and speech about certain topics. The main issue here is whether we should model such mental states or linguistic acts as involving representational contents that are absolutely correct or incorrect, or whether, alternatively, their correctness (...) should be thought of as varying with some (more or less surprising) factor. In this, first, article, I shall discuss the general issue of relativism about representational content. I shall claim that there are legitimate ways of attributing contents that are absolute truth-bearers, and there are also equally legitimate ways of attributing relativistic representational contents. In the companion piece “Relativism 2: Semantic Content”, I look in more detail at the more specific question whether semantic contents (i.e. the contents assigned to linguistic utterances in the semantics of natural language) should be construed in an absolutist or a relativist way. (shrink)

Job satisfaction cannot be defined by a single measurement alone. In fact, there is substantial evidence to support a relationship between satisfaction and performance of a job. For such a relationship there has been tremendous interest among managers and economists as it helps in increasing the quality as well as quantity of the production. However, some argue contrarily, that rather it is the performance that leads to satisfaction. Whatever be the direction of relationship, one thing is clear that productivity and (...) satisfaction have some mutual relationship and each of them affects the other. This paper examines as to when generalizations are to be made it becomes imperative to see which of the factor differentiates the job satisfaction level of private from the public sector employees and if the satisfaction levels of any of the two sectors are different from the other then what are the implications of that on the performance, growth and effectiveness in the long run. The paper empirically measures employee satisfaction in key areas, organizations can gain the information needed to improve their satisfaction, motivation, retention and productivity. (shrink)

Microbial biofilm created huge burden in treatment of both community and hospital infections. A biofilm is complex communities of bacteria attached to a surface or interface enclosed in an exopolysaccharide matrix and protected from unfavorable conditions such as presence of antibiotics, host defense or oxidative stresses. Biofilms are often considered hot spot for horizontal gene transfer among same or different bacterial species. Furthermore, bacteria with increased hydrophobicity facilitate biofilm formation by reducing repulsion between the extracellular matrix and the bacterium. There (...) is a marked increase in the rate of persons nonresponsive to antibiotic therapy for infections of the Urinary Tract (UTIs), burns and upper respiratory tract due to biofilm formations. It is estimated that 90% of nosocomial infections are mediated by biofilm. The role of biofilm in infections has become so great that the treatment of such antibiotic resistance infections is proving difficult and costly to health care systems. The biofilm related infections varied from dental plaque, destruction of prosthetic valve to death of cystic fibrosis patients. This review aims to provide a summary of role of bacterial biofilm and its clinical implications for the patients. (shrink)

What is personhood? What do we want it to be? Blumenthal-Barby (2024) offers an answer to the first question: personhood is an unhelpful, harmful, and pernicious concept in the bioethical setting....

Fine (2007) argues that Frege’s puzzle and its relatives demonstrate a need for a basic reorientation of the field of semantics. According to this reorientation, the domain of semantic facts would be closed not under the classical consequence relation but only under a stronger relation Fine calls “manifest consequence.” I examine Fine’s informally sketched analyses of manifest consequence, showing that each can be amended to determine a class of strong consequence relations. A best candidate relation emerges from each of the (...) two classes, and I prove that the two candidates extensionally coincide. The resulting consequence relation is of independent interest, for it might be held to constitute a cogent standard of reasoning that proceeds under a deficient grasp on the identity of objects. (shrink)

Social epistemologists should be well-equipped to explain and evaluate the growing vulnerabilities associated with filter bubbles, echo chambers, and group polarization in social media. However, almost all social epistemology has been built for social contexts that involve merely a speaker-hearer dyad. Filter bubbles, echo chambers, and group polarization all presuppose much larger and more complex network structures. In this paper, we lay the groundwork for a properly social epistemology that gives the role and structure of networks their due. In particular, (...) we formally define epistemic constructs that quantify the structural epistemic position of each node within an interconnected network. We argue for the epistemic value of a structure that we call the (m,k)-observer. We then present empirical evidence that (m,k)-observers are rare in social media discussions of controversial topics, which suggests that people suffer from serious problems of epistemic vulnerability. We conclude by arguing that social epistemologists and computer scientists should work together to develop minimal interventions that improve the structure of epistemic networks. (shrink)

I present a reconstruction of the logical system of the Tractatus, which differs from classical logic in two ways. It includes an account of Wittgenstein’s “form-series” device, which suffices to express some effectively generated countably infinite disjunctions. And its attendant notion of structure is relativized to the fixed underlying universe of what is named. -/- There follow three results. First, the class of concepts definable in the system is closed under finitary induction. Second, if the universe of objects is countably (...) infinite, then the property of being a tautology is \Pi^1_1-complete. But third, it is only granted the assumption of countability that the class of tautologies is \Sigma_1-definable in set theory. -/- Wittgenstein famously urges that logical relationships must show themselves in the structure of signs. He also urges that the size of the universe cannot be prejudged. The results of this paper indicate that there is no single way in which logical relationships could be held to make themselves manifest in signs, which does not prejudge the number of objects. (shrink)

In the first part of this paper, I argue against the view that laws of nature are contingent, by attacking a necessary condition for its truth within the framework of a conception of laws as relations between universals. I try to show that there is no independent reason to think that universals have an essence independent of their nomological properties. However, such a non-qualitative essence is required to make sense of the idea that different laws link the same universals in (...) different possible worlds. In the second part, I give a positive argument for the necessity of at least some laws of nature, by showing with the example of a paradigmatic law of association that it consists in an internal relation between two universals which are determinables of the same class of determinates, where this relation is essential to both. Furthermore, I show that the necessity of laws of association could be accommodated within David Lewis' Humean metaphysics, but that it is incompatible with David Armstrong's combinatorialism. (shrink)

In their article “Out of nowhere: thought insertion, ownership and context-integration”, Jean-Remy Martin & Elisabeth Pacherie criticize the standard approach to thought insertion. However, their criticism is based on a misunderstanding of what the standard approach actually claims. By clarifying the notions ‘sense of ownership’ and ‘sense of agency’, I show that Martin & Pacherie’s own approach can be construed as a refined version of the standard approach.

(Runner-up, Royal Institute of Philosophy 2020 Philosophy Essay Prize) Technological developments have led to the digitization of certain sectors of the economy, and this has many authors looking ahead to the prospects of a post-work society. While it is valuable to theorize about this possibility, it is also important to take note of the present state of work. For better or worse, it is what we are currently stuck with, and as the COVID-19 pandemic has ensured, much of that work (...) is now taking place online. Though a ‘return to normalcy’ is on the horizon, part of that normalcy involves online work, which is itself a significant change in the lives of many workers. Here I develop an account of work on which work is teleologically structured. This gives the result that working is something we can fail at doing, even when we try, and we can also be unsure of whether we’ve succeeded or failed. The shift of certain work from in-person to online modes generates a persistent uncertainty for workers in affected professions. Because our ability to work is something we typically value, this uncertainty has significant negative consequences for a worker’s self-conception. Indeed, it is analogous to disorders of agency and generates a kind of alienation. (shrink)

This paper presents a detailed exegesis of Russell’s “Gray’s Elegy Argument”. It holds that the GEA mounts a successful attack on Frege—a thesis that has been widely controverted in the literature. The point of departure for my interpretation is Russell’s charge that it is impossible to speak about Sinne, or “meanings” as Russell calls them. I argue that the charge concerns the construction of an “ideal language.” For Russell, an ideal language is an artificial schema designed to represent the truth-makers (...) for sentences occurring in natural language. Its signs stand for the entities that are constituents of those truth-makers. Russell’s charge can thus be expressed more clearly and completely as follows: an ideal language designed to express Frege’s ontology requires signs for meanings ; however, the signs introduced for that purpose cannot be correlated with the entities they are supposed to represent. Thus, the requirement cannot be met. (shrink)

According to the incentives argument, inequalities in material goods are justifiable if they are to the benefit of the worst off members of society. In this paper, I point out what is easily overlooked, namely that inequalities are justifiable only if they are to the overall benefit of the worst off, that is, in terms of both material and social goods. I then address the question how gains in material goods can be weighed against probable losses in social goods. The (...) ultimate criterion, so my idea, is how these gains and losses affect a person's ability to reach her goals in life. Based on the idea that goals in life cannot be taken as given, I conclude that the absolute material gains are negligible compared to the losses of social goods and the disadvantage in the relative position caused by material inequalities. (shrink)

It is here proposed an analysis of symbolic and sub-symbolic models for studying cognitive processes, centered on emergence and logical openness notions. The Theory of logical openness connects the Physics of system/environment relationships to the system informational structure. In this theory, cognitive models can be ordered according to a hierarchy of complexity depending on their logical openness degree, and their descriptive limits are correlated to Gödel-Turing Theorems on formal systems. The symbolic models with low logical openness describe cognition by means (...) of semantics which fix the system/environment relationship, while the sub-symbolic ones with high logical openness tends to seize its evolutive dynamics. An observer is defined as a system with high logical openness. In conclusion, the characteristic processes of intrinsic emergence typical of “bio-logic” - emerging of new codes-require an alternative model to Turing- computation, the natural or bio-morphic computation, whose essential features we are going here to outline. (shrink)

This work shows differences in public participation in China and Western countries, conceptually and empirically. To do so, the different philosophical and public administration traditions are outlined. Main contributions are tables and dashboards to allow general comparisons and to differentiate contexts in both political settings, besides being useful for other settings. The tables included are: 1) Main features of context in China, 2) Deliberative democracy, 3) Main features of context in the west, 4) The Gil Dashboard helping to outline the (...) endogenous foundations for change both in China and the West. -/- democracy, rule of law, public participation, China, western countries . (shrink)

This work stresses the importance of AI accountability to citizens and explores how a fourth independent government branch/institutions could be endowed to ensure that algorithms in today´s democracies convene to the principles of Constitutions. The purpose of this fourth branch of government in modern democracies could be to enshrine accountability of artificial intelligence development, including software-enabled technologies, and the implementation of policies based on big data within a wider democratic regime context. The work draws on Philosophy of Science, Political Theory (...) (Ethics and Ideas), as well as concepts derived from the study of democracy (responsibility and accountability) to make a theoretical analysis of what artificial intelligence (AI) means for the governance of society and what are the limitations of such type of AI governance. The discussion shows that human ideas, as cement of societies, make it problematic to enshrine governance of artificial intelligence into the world of devices. In ethical grounds, the work stresses an existing trade off between greater and faster advancement of technology, or innovation on the one hand, and human well being on the oher, where the later is not automatically guaranteed by default. This trade off is yet unresolved. The work contends that features of AI offer an opportunity to revise government priorities from a multilevel perspective, from the local to the upper levels. artificial intelligence, accountability, democracy, regulation, philosophy of science, ethics, political theory . (shrink)

Experiences like pains, pleasures, and emotions have affective phenomenal character: they feel pleasant or unpleasant. Imperativism proposes to explain affective phenomenal character by appeal to imperative content, a kind of intentional content that directs rather than describes. We argue that imperativism is on the right track, but has been developed in the wrong way. There are two varieties of imperativism on the market: first-order and higher-order. We show that neither is successful, and offer in their place a new theory: reflexive (...) imperativism. Our proposal is that an experience P feels pleasant in virtue of being constituted by a Command with reflexive imperative content, while an experience U feels unpleasant in virtue of being constituted by a Command with reflexive imperative content : More of P!Less of U! If you need a slogan: experiences have affective phenomenal character in virtue of commanding us Get more of me! Get less of me! (shrink)

La lógica formal no es una ciencia que se encuentre libre de presupuestos. Más bien, su representación de la forma lógica se basa en presupuestos a los cuales la lógica misma no llega. Este artículo se propone aclararlos. Para ello, en un primer momento, consideraremos las determinaciones fundamentales de la forma lógica. En un segundo paso, esta consideración será profundizada a partir del análisis del concepto lógico-formal de “concepto”. Con él se plantean problemas que hacen necesario avanzar en la reflexión (...) sobre la forma lógica. Ese avance necesario es la lógica trascendental en el sentido en el que la entiende Kant. /// Formal logic cannot claim to represent a presuppositionless science. In fact, its account of logical form rests upon a set of presuppositions, which is not justified within logic itself. This article shall elaborate on this in two steps. First, we shall highlight the primal determinations in formal logic’s account of logical form. Second, we shall deepen this with regard to the account of the concept. In doing so, we will encounter systematic problems, the resolution of which necessarily gives rise to a genuine self-reflection of logical form, which is transcendental logic in terms of Kant. /// Formale Logik ist keine voraussetzungsfreie Wissenschaft, sondern ihre Darstellung der logischen Form beruht auf Voraussetzungen, die sie selbst nicht einholt. Der Aufsatz soll dies verdeutlichen. Dazu werden in einem ersten Schritt die grundlegendsten Bestimmungen in der Fassung der logischen Form vergegenwärtigt. In einem zweiten Schritt wird dies mit Blick auf den formallogischen Begriff des Begriffs vertieft. Dabei treten systematische Probleme auf, deren Auflösung einen Fortschritt in der Selbstreflexion der logischen Form nötig macht: die transzendentale Logik im Sinne Kants. (shrink)

This paper examines a paradigm case of allegedly successful reductive explanation, viz. the explanation of the fact that water boils at 100°C based on facts about H2O. The case figures prominently in Joseph Levine’s explanatory gap argument against physicalism. The paper studies the way the argument evolved in the writings of Levine, focusing especially on the question how the reductive explanation of boiling water figures in the argument. It will turn out that there are two versions of the explanatory gap (...) argument to be found in Levine’s writings. The earlier version relies heavily on conceptual analysis and construes reductive explanation as a process of deduction. The later version makes do without conceptual analysis and understands reductive explanations as based on theoretic reductions that are justified by explanatory power. Along the way will be shown that the bridge principles — which are being neglected in the explanatory gap literature — play a crucial role in the explanatory gap argument. (shrink)

This article owes a lot to Arthur C. Danto's heuristic writings about the Artworld, which have shown us, that the ontological status of works of art is, at least when we discuss some current, maybe even dominating trends in contemporary art, dependent on our more or less philosophical interpretations of them. The effects of the Dantoan atmosphere of theory and art historical consciousness are, still, decisive for just some contemporary art. Danto's interest in the philosophical side of contemporary art makes (...) his philosophy of art exclusive in relation to art which is less philosophically appealing than the readymade tradition, to the extent that Danto did not, for a long time, even try to incorporate problems of beauty, aesthetic experience, and formal qualities, to his theory of the Artworld. (Opening paragraph.). (shrink)

This paper examines the position in moral philosophy that Harry Frankfurt calls the Principle of Alternate Possibilities (PAP). The paper first describes the principle as articulated by A.J. Ayer. Subsequently, the paper examines Frankfurt’s critique and proposed revision of the principle and argues that Frankfurt’s proposal relies on an excessively simplistic account of practical reasoning, which fails to account for the possibility of moral dilemmas. In response, the paper offers a further revision of PAP, which accounts for Frankfurt’s critique, moral (...) dilemmas, and the challenge of causal determinism. (shrink)

Affective experiences such as pains, pleasures, and emotions have affective phenomenology: they feel pleasant. This type of phenomenology has a loopy regulatory profile: it often motivates us to act a certain way, and these actions typically end up regulating our affective experiences back. For example, the pleasure you get by tasting your morning coffee motivates you to drink more of it, and this in turn results in you obtaining another pleasant gustatory experience. In this article, we argue that reflexive imperativism (...) is the only intentionalist account of affective phenomenology—probably, the only account at all—that is able to make sense of its loopy regulatory profile. (shrink)

Engaging with Kant’s transcendental logic seems to be a question of mere scholarly historical interest today. It is most commonly regarded a mixture between logic and psychology or epistemology, and by that, not a serious form of logic. Transcendental logic seems to be of no systematical impact on the concept of logic. My paper aims to disclose a different account on the endeavour of Kant’s transcendental logic in particular and of the “Critique of Pure Reason” (CPR) in general. Kant’s fundamental (...) question is in a revolutionary way aiming to ground the character of necessity of knowledge, which means to justify the claim that thinking in accordance with the forms and principles of formal logic does not lead to sheer tautologies or an unsolved contradiction, but to knowledge that is objectively valid. In a first part, I shall demonstrate the necessity and the significance of this new fundamental question of the CPR with respect to its genesis out of pre-Kantian metaphysics. A brief outline of Kant’s answer to this question, with special emphasis on his revolutionary new comprehension of logical form, will be given as well. A second part shall open up a perspective that lies beyond Kant’s standpoint with reference to Nietzsche and eventually to Hegel. I will answer the question: What knowledge do we achieve about being or actuality by means of formal logic? I will argue that Kant shows that formal logic is the logic of all technical-practical conduct but also, at least indirectly, the limitation of the technical-practical knowledge and its legitimate sphere of application. (shrink)

In recent metaethics, moral realists have advanced a companions-in-guilt argument against moral nihilism. Proponents of this argument hold that the conclusion that there are no categorical normative reasons implies that there are no epistemic reasons. However, if there are no epistemic reasons, there are no epistemic reasons to believe nihilism. Therefore, nihilism is false or no one has epistemic reasons to believe it. While this argument is normally presented as a reply to Mackie, who introduced the term “companions-in-guilt” in his (...) Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong of 1977, Herbert J. Phillips presented a form of this argument in Ethics in 1940. In this paper, I will discuss Phillips’ version of the companions-in-guilt argument, demonstrate how recent epistemology bears out an important premise of the argument, and compare Phillips’ argument to Derek Parfit’s recent work. (shrink)

The evil God challenge is an argumentative strategy that has been pursued by a number of philosophers in recent years. It is apt to be understood as a parody argument: a wholly evil, omnipotent and omniscient God is absurd, as both theists and atheists will agree. But according to the challenge, belief in evil God is about as reasonable as belief in a wholly good, omnipotent and omniscient God; the two hypotheses are roughly epistemically symmetrical. Given this symmetry, thesis belief (...) in an evil God and belief in a good God are taken to be similarly preposterous. In this paper, we argue that the challenge can be met, suggesting why the three symmetries that need to hold between evil God and good God – intrinsic, natural theology and theodicy symmetries – can all be broken. As such, we take it that the evil God challenge can be met. (shrink)

This article is part of Religious Studies’ new initiative to publish a series of interviews with distin- guished philosophers of religion. Each interview explores the personal and academic background of the interviewee and discusses their core philosophical views. The aim is to inspire students and scholars and to provide an overview of some of the most important works developed by contempo- rary philosophers of religion. In the first interview, Max Baker-Hytch interviews Richard Swinburne, covering such topics as his upbringing, his (...) days as a student in Oxford in the 1950s, and his views on natural theology, the problem of evil, and the mind-body problem. (shrink)

Spivak translates Derrida’s “il n’y a pas de hors-texte” as “there is nothing outside the text.” By considering how the aphorism works within his study of Rousseau on sexual and textual supplements, and by reviewing related expressions in French, a mistranslation is revealed. This is not a simple error, however. The distortion is generated by Derrida’s own broader context. We must not only distinguish signification from reference but also place the aphorism within Derrida’s allusion, in the first part of Of (...) Grammatology, to an all-embracing arche-writing. The paper ends in thus opening out the discussion of a textual “inside” or “outside.”. (shrink)

The term ‘natural theology’ provokes a variety of reactions, spanning from whole-hearted endorsement to passionate rejection. Charged as it is with polemical and pejorative undertones, this debate begs for an intervention. If the scholarly community is to engage constructively with the concept and practice of natural theology — either by way of acceptance, rejection, or something in between — clarity in its definition and identification is imperative. The aim of this paper, then, is to try to shed some light on (...) three of the most common definitions of ‘natural theology’ in contemporary scholarship, to provide clarity about the ways in which they differ, and to propose some conceptual refinements in the hope that, if adopted, more fruitful discourse may take place in relation to this much-debated and interdisciplinary phrase. (shrink)

Arendt is a philosopher despite herself, and this paper uses the resources of her <<The Life of the Mind>> to develop her comparison of thinking as a 'departure' from the world with the fore-doomed attempt by Orpheus to bring from underground into the light of day. The paper investigates how thinking, though we 'lose' it in the speech and writing that makes it public, still can have the delicate power that Arendt attributes to it.

Many epistemologists are enamored with a defeat condition on knowledge. In this paper we present some implementation problems for defeatism, understood along either internalist or externalist lines. We then propose that one who accepts a knowledge norm of belief, according to which one ought to believe only what one knows, can explain away much of the motivation for defeatism. This is an important result, because on the one hand it respects the plausibility of the intuitions about defeat shared by many (...) in epistemology; but on the other hand, it obviates the need to provide a unified account of defeat which plays well with the most plausible views of how knowledge fits with evidential probability. (shrink)

Verteilungsgerechtigkeit befasst sich mit der Verteilung von Gütern innerhalb einer Gruppe, wobei verschiedene Verteilungsprinzipien und -ergebnisse als mögliche Ideale einer solchen Verteilung verhandelt werden. Diese normativen Ansätze sind oft rein verbal formuliert, wodurch ihre Anwendung auf unterschiedliche konkrete Verteilungssituationen, die hinsichtlich ihrer Gerechtigkeit beurteilt werden sollen, häufig schwer fällt. Eine Möglichkeit, fein abgestufte Gerechtigkeitsbeurteilungen verschiedener Verteilungen präzise erfassen zu können, besteht in der formalen Modellierung solcher Ideale durch Maße oder Indizes. Die Auswahl eines geeigneten Maßes, das ein gewisses Ideal abbilden (...) soll, muss ihrerseits eine Fundierung erfahren, was durch die Forderung von begründeten Axiomen erreicht werden kann, denen ein Maß genügen soll. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden solche Axiome für Maße der Verteilungsgerechtigkeit am Beispiel von Bedarfsgerechtigkeit eingeführt. Ferner werden exemplarische Maße der Bedarfsgerechtigkeit vorgestellt. Damit wird für die Beurteilung und Modellierung von Maßen der Verteilungsgerechtigkeit eine erste diskutable Grundlage gelegt. (shrink)

In this essay, I consider Sally Haslanger’s social constructivist account of race and propose a modification to the nature of hierarchy specified. According to Haslanger, race will cease to exist post-hierarchy, given that she builds in a requirement of synchronic hierarchy for the existence of race. While Haslanger maintains that racial identity would linger beyond hierarchical treatment in the form of ethnicity, I will suggest this fails to provide adequate conceptual justice for the cultures and aesthetics which emerged out of (...) past oppression. In response, I propose a modification which would allow us to recognize the possibility of post-hierarchical races. (shrink)